Are African Libraries active participants in today ’ s Knowledge and Information Society ? 1

This paper highlights the concept ‘knowledge and information society’; reviews the status of libraries in Africa; and explores the challenges facing libraries in today’s society. The study concludes that while some African libraries, and South African libraries in particular, are actively part of the knowledge and information society, the same cannot be said for most libraries in Africa.


Introduction
This article has four sub-themes.The first area is highlighting and contextualising the concepts 'knowledge society' (KS) and 'information society' (IS) in order to show how a library space functions in the KS/IS social environment.Second is an overview of libraries in Africa, and third, a discussion of the challenges and opportunities for libraries in today's information age.The conclusion suggests an agenda for the future.

The Knowledge Society
Society has significantly transformed from hunting -agrarian -industrial to post-industrial, information and knowledge societies or third industry or 'Third Wave' as Alvin Toffler (1991) puts it.When Daniel Bell conceived the concept Post-Industrial Society, he also strongly referred to the Information Society (including the knowledge society), as discussed extensively by Duff (1998) and Moodley (2004) in the 1960s.Bell came across tendencies such as the "post-industrial workforce", information flows and the computer and 'information revolution' or "Network Society" as Manuel Castells (1996Castells ( , 1997Castells ( , 1998) ) put it in his seminal work "The Information Age".This latter stage (the knowledge and information society) has delivered to contemporary society, through the extensive use of Information and Communication Technology (ICTs), a global/wired/telematic society increasingly interconnected or networked through a seamless information flow and knowledge sharing that some consider scary and others extremely enlightening.The information and knowledge society is increasingly shaping the present and future societies.There are two strands of definitions of information society and knowledge society.One is generic, macro and inclusive.Another is specialised, micro, exclusive and largely technocentric.In order better to define the concept 'information society' (including knowledge society) an inclusive, macro definition was expressed at the World Summit on Information Society in Geneva and Tunis (2005) by the World leaders: a people-centered, inclusive and development-oriented Information Society, where everyone can create, access, utilize and share information and knowledge, enabling individuals, communities and peoples to achieve their full potential in promoting their sustainable development and improving their quality of life (see http:// www.itu.int/wsis/docs/geneva/official/dop.html).Put another (micro) way, McColgan of Finland's Council of State (as quoted by Nassimbeni 1998:154) suggested that the information society is: … society which makes extensive use of information networks (meaning systems of IT hardware and services which provide users with delivery and retrieval services in a given area, e.g.electronic mail, directories and video services) and IT (Information technology meaning the hardware, software and methods used for the automatic processing and transfer of data, and skills needed to use them), produces large quantities of information and communication products and services, and has a diversified content industry.The concepts of knowledge society and information society are closely related.In Bells words, "knowledge is that which is objectively known, an intellectual property, attached to a name or a group of names and certified by copyright or some other form of social recognition (e.g.publication)" (Bell 1974, 176).UNESCO's World Report, Towards Knowledge Societies (2005), is very comprehensive in defining and contextualizing knowledge societies, where it argues that they are "about capabilities to identify, produce, process, transform, disseminate and use information to build and apply knowledge for human development."The knowledge society is viewed as a source of development because of the recognition and acknowledgment of the importance of human rights, freedom of expression and empowerment, and fight against poverty.Knowledge societies are also viewed in terms of 'digital solidarity' geared towards bridging the 'digital divide' caused by limited access to infrastructure or connectivity, affordability, and/or exclusion because of inappropriate 'content.' Libraries, particularly academic libraries, have been popularly referred to as 'temples' of knowledge for centuries.They are therefore expected to play a fundamental role in today's society, mainly by changing their roles and functions.Libraries cannot effectively do this without recognising the right for people to be informed and the right for one to express one self.In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which provides common standards for all nations and information workers, Article 19 stipulates that: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers" (UNDHR 1948).Furthermore, Article 27 stipulates that "Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and share in scientific advancement and its benefits."Recognising such fundamental rights would mean defining and understanding the knowledge society and information society as inclusive, and would mean not relegating the benefits of IS and KS only to the information elite (as it generally tends to happen due to the 'digital divide').
There is a growing amount of preparedness by African governments to participate actively in the knowledge and information society.For example, the most recent has been Africa's endorsement of the World Summit on Information Society resolutions and declarations at both Geneva in 2003 and Tunis in 2005, which sketched the way forward in the development of an information and knowledge society.Governments' commitment to an information and knowledge society is instrumental by way of supporting libraries to spearhead its development.

African libraries: an overview
Africa is the second largest continent in land size and the first in terms of the number of nations in the world, with 53 independent countries and a population of approximately 955 million people (as at 2008), but also the poorest in economic terms.Most African countries only received their political independence from colonists (France, Britain, and Portugal) in the second decade of the twentieth century.It is therefore not surprising that libraries in Africa have always tended to serve the privileged, i.e. the colonists of the past, and the educated, and economically sated urban 'settlers' of the present.According to my own knowledge and observation, perhaps also shared by others, the view of library services is based on the assumption that library users know how to read and write, or are functionally literate in at least one non-African language (such as English, French, Portuguese), reside in urban areas (where they are closer to the library), and are aware of what the library provides even if the content is not relevant to their needs.A speech by the former Minister of Education of South Africa in 2002 reveals that in South Africa, with its 48 million people, "3.5 million adults over the age of 16 have never attended school; another 2.5 million adults have lost their earlier ability to read or write.That makes essentially 6 million South Africans who are essentially barred from the written word, from the whole universe of information and imagination that books hold; and also from the more functional everyday empowerment that written languages gives -for employment, for travel and to be a responsible citizen" (Speech by the Minister of Education, Professor Kader Asmal, as quoted in Nassimbeni & May 2006, 13).A more recent speech by Pallo Jordan (2007), South Africa's Minister of Arts and Culture, paints a bleaker picture still: "... 51% of South Africans have no books in their homes.A mere 14% of the population read books and only 5% of these read to their children." The two Ministers' speeches, made within an interval of five years, provide an example of how an African population can be economically deprived, geographically isolated, and culturally and socially marginalised through illiteracy.Yet, even though colonial ideas still dictate literacy in the form of reading and writing, oral traditions have been the dominant mode of knowledge acquisition, processing, storage, dissemination and sharing before, during and after colonial rule amongst most of the African populace.These oral traditions have not been sufficiently exploited in attempts to make libraries more relevant to those who are destitute or marginalised in their own countries due to economic poverty.The marginalised include rural people who are often geographically isolated because of poor communication and transportation systems; those disadvantaged by cultural and social poverty and deprivation, especially the illiterate; the elderly, women, and children; those who are discriminated against because of their race, ethnicity, creed or religion; and the physically disabled.The question that has not been fully answered is how to supplement modern ways of information access with oral traditions (e.g.story telling) in order to make information, particularly the local content, accessible.
While focusing on academic, public, school and special libraries as well as LIS education and training in Africa (Ocholla 2009), it becomes clear that both availability and accessibility are critical in order to ensure that libraries fulfil their role, which is to inform, entertain, enlighten, educate, empower and equip individuals and communities with knowledge and information for self-reliance and for life-long learning.Thus, libraries inadvertently enable individuals to fulfil their social roles and obligations in society knowingly and responsibly.
Academic libraries are relatively better equipped and resourced than other libraries in Africa.Their establishment and development has not been stagnant because academic institutions (higher education institutions or HEIs) in most African countries are compelled by governments to establish libraries as a requirement and maintain them for accreditation.Beyond this, HEIs have been left alone to equip the libraries as they wish with a fraction of the subsidisation they receive from government or other affiliations, and there is therefore significant variation in their development and growth, both in quantity and quality.While there is a general consensus in many studies that academic libraries in Africa do not have a staffing problem, most studies (e.g.Raju & Raju 2009) agree with the problems identified in a study on the status of academic libraries in Africa by Rosenberg (1997).This study revealed that libraries are poorly funded, with budgets that are either non-existent, declining or rarely honoured; collection development is often either minimal or non-existent; there is too much expenditure on staff (some libraries are overstaffed) at the expense of acquisitions; there is overdependence on [foreign] external funding, which is estimated to be as high as 90-100% in some libraries; ICTs aren't sufficiently utilised and networks suffer poor connectivity; and resource sharing is not a common practice.Reggie Raju from the University of Stellenbosch Library and Jayarani Raju (2009) from Durban University of Technology LIS Department, in their discussion on the issues and challenges facing academic libraries, while agreeing with studies focusing on this library category, recommend benchmarking for academic libraries (see Poll, Boekhorst & Mundt 2007).The two authors reiterate that cost reduction, income generation, resource sharing, rational staffing, ICT application and the reduction of donor dependency engender sustainability and therefore require everyone's critical attention.
Most public libraries in Africa play a dual role as public libraries and national libraries, with the exception of countries such as South Africa where the two types of libraries are separate.Public libraries receive significant attention worldwide, and the UNESCO Public Library Manifesto (1994) provides guidelines and moral support for their development.The Manifesto that is familiar to most of us states that, "The public library, the local gateway to knowledge, provides a basic condition for lifelong learning, independent decision -making and cultural development of the individual and social groups.The Manifesto proclaims UNESCO's belief in the public library as a living force for education, culture and information, as an essential agent for the fostering of peace and spiritual welfare through the minds of men and women."Unfortunately, public library development in Africa has received strong criticism.For example, Issak's findings (2000), in a report on public librarianship in a segment of Africa (10 English Speaking African [Anglophone] countries) whose observations are still real today, echoed earlier accounts of poor services, declining budgets, lack of resources, outdated materials, lack of planning, inadequate knowledge of the information needs of the users, and poverty.This report partly blamed the western model of the public library system on the poor state of the libraries.
Other studies (e.g.Sturges & Neil 1990) concur with Issak's report, stating that most of Africa's population has yet to experience the library and its services because of a long history of elitism, urban-centrism and Euro-centrism.The argument presented by these authors is that libraries in Africa still remain largely stocked with Western literature, most of which is written in non-African languages.Several authors in Issak's (2000) collected work suggested the need for alternative services such as community information services, and impact assessments of public library services.Government commitment, improvements in the professional commitment of librarians, and the provision of resources were also considered essential areas of focus.The community library concept is also, by all appearances, a viable way to deliver information to the poor and marginalised from a public library platform.But this writer strongly concurs with Rosenberg's view that "Originating from the initiative of a group from the community or an aid agency, their birth is followed by a year or two of rapid growth and a good deal of local publicity and attention.This is followed by a period of slow decline, accompanied by theft, the departure of the initiators, loss of interest among staff and users -the library still exists but signs of life are barely discernible.Sometimes this period continues indefinitely, but often a final stage is reached when all remaining books are removed, stolen, or damaged beyond repair and the premises and staff are allocated to another activity" (Rosenberg, quoted in Mostert 2001).However, this does not mean that community libraries or information resource centres are irrelevant.Mchombu (2004) passionately demonstrates how they should work in his chapter on "the content of information and knowledge in community resource centres and information sharing and processing", and how to keep the community information resource centre alive He also provides four interesting case studies and lessons learned at grassroots level on setting up community information resource centres.
A more recent account on public libraries in Africa by Isaac Kigongo-Bukenya (2009) from the East African School of Library and Information Science, Uganda, addresses the issues and challenges of an institution that is highly regarded and trusted by the international information community [public library] for changing the lives of many people in the world by providing a facility for life-long learning.In his final remarks, he observes that although public libraries have existed in Africa for a long time, their development in different parts of the continent is not uniform; support for public libraries by African governments and civil society is minimal; and in many countries, public library provision and services have declined to an alarming extent.Kigongo-Bukenya, like many critics of public library development in Africa, associates the decline with what he calls the "alien and elitist nature of the public library; the failure of the public library to identify with community needs, therefore offering irrelevant services; lack of appropriate information materials; lack of proper staffing; and finally lack of committed institutional budgets and consequently donor funding dependency."He recognises new, sometimes politicised initiatives, such as Reading Tents -Uganda; The Village Reading Rooms Programme (VRRP) -Botswana; the Rural Libraries and Resource Development Programme (RLRDP) -Zimbabwe; and the Camel Library Service (CLS) -Kenya, to name a few.However, whether these initiatives are practical, sustainable, apolitical, and address the gaps created by Western oriented public libraries depends on the outcome of their evaluation or impact assessment, if they last that long.
School libraries, as outlined in the IFLA/UNESCO School Library Manifesto (2006), are to provide "information and ideas that are fundamental to functioning successfully in today's information and knowledge-based society.The school library equips students with life-long learning skills and develops the imagination, enabling them to live as responsible citizens."While most countries in Africa have embraced the creation of libraries in tertiary or higher education institutions, both as a government requirement and to enable accreditation, schools in Africa are not compelled to establish schools libraries as a statutory requirement.Ultimately, most schools in Africa do not have school libraries.Therefore the golden objectives of school libraries expressed in the IFLA/UNESCO School Library Manifesto are irrelevant, theoretical or academic to most schools on the continent.Even relatively well developed African countries, such as South Africa, have only 19.8% of schools with libraries (Directorate of Education 2003:8).The most commonly cited reason is the absence of school library policies (Le Roux 2002), the argument being that if library policies work for academic institutions, why not for schools?Robert Ikoja-Odongo ( 2009), from the East African School of Library and Information Science at Makerere University, provides an insightful account into the development of school libraries in parts of Africa.He concludes by stating that governments should consider developing and implementing genuine school library policies in every country, recognising and employing trained professionals for the management of the libraries and the provision of services, providing space and accommodation for the libraries and restoring them appropriately, promoting a local languages publishing programme, and developing a curriculum that demands resource-based and learner-centred education.
Special libraries are individual, private or government information centres that serve the information needs of a specific user group, e.g.parliamentarians, the physically disabled, lawyers, researchers or prisoners.From this definition, one can see that it would be difficult to quantify special libraries because of their obscure existence and services (they could be found in individuals' private homes as well).In Africa, special libraries have a multiplicity of other names, such as documentation centres, information centres, etc.Their collections are normally subject specific, i.e. music, art, rare documents/books, etc.They are not considered public, national, academic or school libraries; although some may serve both their parent organisation and the general public (for example, the South African Library for the Blind).In a recent paper written by Mostert (2009), from the Department of Library and Information Science, University of Zululand, South Africa, she traces and highlights the development of special libraries in Africa from the ancient repositories in Mali (Timbuktu) and notes that their development has been re-active rather than pro-active, which has hampered their growth.In her view, at present, stronger growth and development has been observed in Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa, particularly in the government ministries/departments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and corporate sectors.She notes that the challenges facing special library development include marginalisation, collection development (e.g.local content, digitisation), capacity building, application of ICTs, networking, resource sharing and visibility.These challenges can be turned into opportunities if attention is redirected to the development of consortia, benchmarking and the measurement of values/standards, ICTs, collection development, staff development and the increased visibility of the libraries.
Coming to library and information education and training, common trends are noted in the following areas: the growth of LIS schools -now more than 60; review and revision of curricula; increased use of information and communication technologies (ICTs); the rise and fall of student numbers depending on market forces; amalgamation and reorientation of LIS programmes for viability; relocation of the academic administration of LIS schools; and the expansion and closure of LIS schools (Minishi-Majanja & Ocholla 2004, Ocholla & Bothma 2007, Ocholla 2008).Detailed discussions on some of these issues appear in a recent book chapter by Bosire Onyancha and Mabel Minishi-Majanja (2009), both from the University of South Africa, where they recognise and discusse the enumerated trends and conclude that LIS education and training in Africa has recorded significant growth in research productivity.There is a strong correlation between the LIS job market in Africa and curriculum development and student numbers in most LIS schools.
Impact studies and the benchmarking of libraries in Africa are essential practices, and improving overall literacy levels and basic adult education through libraries as noted by Nassimbeni and May (2006) are areas that require further exploration.A recent IFLA publication on Performance Measurement in Libraries (Poll, Boekhorst, & Mundt 2007) describes the performance indicators, focusing on resources and infrastructure, use, efficiency, and potential and development.They are aimed largely at public and academic libraries, and, as a result, could be used to benchmark African libraries of all types.

Challenges and opportunities
Sections one and two of this paper have highlighted fundamental issues that could be used to identify the challenges facing African libraries' role in the information and knowledge society in general terms.The major challenge for libraries in our society, though, is to reach most people and make a difference in their lives.It would be worthwhile to enumerate and highlight a few other challenges.
Access to information is inhibited by inequalities, most of which originate from artificial or man-made marginalisation by geographical location, culture, physical status, race, gender, religion, economic-poverty, political displacement, and freedom of expression (Ocholla 1998(Ocholla , 2006;;Kagan 2003).Some efforts to tackle these issues exist in most parts of Africa but the pace of dealing with issues is extremely slow.
Access requires the provision of appropriate content, infrastructure, and bridging the 'knowledge divide' (UNESCO World Report 2005), by all means possible.For example, Fredericks and Mvunelo (2003), referring to a study conducted on status of school libraries in the Western Cape, South Africa, noted that the language of library documents/collections is almost entirely (99%) in English or Afrikaans and this information in turn is overwhelmingly provided in print format.The lack of content in indigenous languages such as those cited by Frederick and Mvunelo( 2003), the adult education challenges (Nassimbeni & May 2006), lack of school libraries and school library policies (Le Roux 2002), and whether and how information literacy should be conducted by libraries (Underwood 2003) also inhibit access (Ocholla 2006).
The technology provision, acquisition, sustainability, use, and impact are also crucial.Is relevant or appropriate technology available in libraries?How far are African libraries networked or tapping into virtual global knowledge?Internet access within libraries (essentially a library within a library or virtual library) has become a major service that libraries increasingly provide or should provide because such access creates a window through which individuals can access virtual knowledge resources, and the window increases the libraries' capacity to offer more diversified information while encouraging the use of other sources and promoting interest in the library (Ocholla 2006).According to Internet World Stats (http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats1.htm),Internet penetration in Africa by June 2008 was 5.3% of the population, or 3.5% of world usage.However, the good news is that Internet use growth from 2000 to 2008 was 1,031.2%,far greater than the rest of the world (296.3%).This growth provides greater opportunity for virtual information services that must be tapped into by libraries and other information providers.The rapid growth of modern wireless technology in Africa (e.g.mobile phones and perhaps broadband technology in the immediate future) also offers extraordinary opportunities for information services to the inhabitants.
The creation of a learning society discussed in the UNESCO World Report (2005) by promoting lifelong learning through adult education and training that may include participation of public libraries (Nassimbeni & May 2006), information literacy, and encouraging apprenticeship and voluntarism is needed.Lifelong learning also means, according to the Report, encouraging research, innovation, and publication.Essentially, research creates new knowledge by interrogating existing knowledge and practices and improving products, services, activities and programmes.Innovation is fundamental in the provision of new and unique services or competitive products that requires a very vibrant and creative information environment and active information users.
Finally, there is the problem of content, such as local or indigenous knowledge (see UNESCO World Report 2005).Good content should be sensitive to language and cultural diversity and knowledge, and represent local content relevant to community needs.A magnificent opportunity exists in the creation of local/institutional repositories for archiving content for open access and for improving its visibility and access by the rest of the world.
In my earlier writings (Ocholla 2006), we have recognised some of these challenges from within the context of information accessibility to the marginalised community and benchmarking library services, performance measurement, policy, adult literacy, information literacy, community libraries and community resource centres.The issue of telecentres that Synman and Snyman (2003, 96), quoting Benjamin et al., "refers to the practice of establishing centres as information resources and communication nodes in disadvantaged rural areas to meet the telecommunications and information needs of the members of such communities" is worth revisiting.This grandiose "South African government's initiative to use ICT for the dissemination of information to the information deprived rural communities by establishing Tele-Centers in the rural areas", that was once described by the World Bank (Snyman & Snyman 2003, 97) as "a powerful engine of rural development and a preferred instrument in the fight against poverty" is reported by the two authors to have been unsuccessful.Although this initiative has not been successful in South Africa, there are reported successes in other parts of Africa such as Senegal.One question that needs asking is how libraries can tap into this vacuum or potential?
Bridging the digital divide is both a challenge and an opportunity.Opportunities lie in the availability of publication initiatives that are free of charge, as highlighted by Derek Law (2004: 18), as follows: • 'Electronic Information For Libraries' (eIFL), initiated by the Open Society Institute (OSI), whose aim it is to provide "low-cost access research materials identified by the consortia for North-South transfer as well as encouraging lateral transfer of materials between developing countries and countries in transition" • The Health Internet Work Access to Research Initiative (HINARI), which aims to "provide free or very low cost access to scientific journals in biomedical and related social sciences to public institutions in the developing countries" • The International Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications (INASP) (see http://www.inasp.info),set up by the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) in 1992 and its Programme for the Enhancement of Research Information (PERI) set up in 2002.This programme, according to Law, has four components (i.e. the acquisition of full text journals, and databases and document delivery; regional and national online services for the dissemination of local research; ICT skills for information literacy; and publishing competencies) aimed at "creating a sustainable environment for the dissemination of research literature".• The Directory of Open Access Journals -DOAJ (http://www.doaj.org)-whose aim it is to increase the "visibility of and simplify access to all open access scientific and scholarly journals whose content is governed by either peer review or some other forms of quality control".• Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO -http://www.scielo.org/php/index.php?lang=en) -a model for cooperative electronic publishing in developing countries that makes available more than 600 full-text scientific journals.The idea is that the increasing availability of publications should enable libraries to bring virtual and digital journals to their libraries and improve collections and accessibility.• Open Access Initiatives (OAI), where libraries are expected to play a crucial role in the development or hosting of institutional repositories and enable rapid access to scholarly information and knowledge.Thus, libraries' changing role is to participate in scholarly communication by supporting electronic scholarly knowledge products and also provide and organise digital content through institutional repositories.There is evidence, for example, in Australia (Horwood et al. 2004) and also in South Africa, where such initiatives focusing on the role of libraries in the development of institutional repositories and the benefits arising from the changing functions of libraries (including technical requirements) are represented.OAI has many advantages stemming from its ability to increase relevancy, use, recognition, advocacy and promotion, accountability, visibility (Onyancha 2007a) and access in modern times.It is recognised that such initiatives go hand in hand with issues and knowledge of metadata, communication skills, advocacy and promotion, intellectual property, peer review, mediation, costs, and preservation.
The changing roles of libraries will also create what Jennifer Rowley (2003) terms "knowledge management -the new librarianship …" Rowley (2003 438-439) sees the present-future role of the librarian as divided into three areas (at the very least): managing knowledge repositories (e.g.evaluation, filtering, signposting, structuring, facilitating access, repackaging and presenting knowledge); facilitating knowledge flow (e.g.gate keeping); and communication and leveraging value generating capacity (integrates all three).

Conclusions
Libraries in Africa could potentially spur on the development of the current knowledge and information society.For example, South Africa is endowed with a strong economy and extensive information resources, systems and services (Mostert 2005); and has one of the fastest growing information and communication technology infrastructures in Africa.The opportunities for libraries in the information society in Africa lie in information content diversification for inclusivity by, among other things, recognising cultural and linguistic diversity, and making use of the multiple channels through which one can access information.Africa has burgeoning higher education institutions, and the continent's, particularly southern Africa, sensitivity to transformation, redress and equity is growing.Academic libraries [libraries within higher education institutions] in Africa that are relatively well resourced (for example in terms of staffing) should champion modern service delivery in the information society that could be emulated by other local libraries.A strong role can also be played by professional associations at national and regional levels (such as the Standing Conference of Eastern, Central and Southern Africa-SCECSAL).Regional professional activities support and boost weak national associations through information and knowledge sharing and benchmarking based on the recognition of similarities rather than differences, as would be witnessed in the annual International Crimea Conference, Sudak, Ukraine.For example, the Library and Information Association of South Africa (LIASA), which recently (2007) hosted IFLA's annual conference in Durban successfully, is the largest and arguably fastest growing library and information association in Africa.LIASA offers a platform from which to launch important initiatives for the region.There is tangible interest being shown by government